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Last updated: 1 February 2008

CBW Nonproliferation Regime
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Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

• The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) (Also in PDF.)
• Full text of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. A treaty outlawing the development, production, stockpiling, transfer, and use of chemical weapons. The CWC requires those states parties that possess chemical weapons to declare and destroy them. The international trade in chemicals that may be used in chemical weapons manufacture is also controlled by the CWC. As of December 2007, roughly 10 years after its entry into force, 183 states had ratified the treaty, with an additional 5 nations having signed the CWC, but not ratified it. Seven states have not signed the CWC (Syria, Somalia, Iraq, Eqypt, North Korea, Angola, and Lebanon). With entry into force of the CWC in 1997 came the responsibility for its enforcement and implementation, which is supervised by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), an organization dedicated to fulfilling the provisions and goals of the treaty.
• States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention
• Lists of States Parties and relevant dates provided by the OPCW, updated frequently.
• Chemical Disarmament Quarterly
• A periodical published by the OPCW providing updates and analysis of issues pertaining to the nonproliferation and destruction of chemical weapons, as well as the activities of the OPCW.
• 2006 Annual Report of the OPCW (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• An annual report, published in November 2007, that details OPCW activities and financial data, including inspections, international assistance, outreach activities, and information concerning individual member states.
• First Chemical Weapons Convention Review Conference (April-May 2003)
• Official documents and other information from the first CWC review conference, held from April 28 to May 9, 2003, in The Hague, Netherlands.
• U.S. Chemical Weapons Convention Website
• A website maintained jointly by the Bureau of Industry and Security of the Department of Commerce, and the Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation of the Department of State. Provides information on the CWC, associated U.S. laws and regulations, and treaty compliance information for the U.S. chemical industry.
• CWC U.S. Authorities
• Article-by-Article Analysis
• A thorough analysis of the text of the CWC, provided by the U.S. Defense Treaty Inspection Readiness Program (DTIRP).
• Ratification
• Conditions to ratification of the CWC, passed by the U.S. Senate on April 24, 1997 in Senate Resolution 75, 105^th Congress, 1^st session.
• Implementing Legislation
• Full text of the Chemical Weapons Implementation Act of 1998.
• 
  Other Information and Analysis Pertaining to the CWC
• An overview of the CWC and an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses, from the Nuclear Threat Initiative website.
• CWC Treaty Synopsis
• An overview of the CWC prepared and maintained by the U.S. Defense Treaty Inspection Readiness Program (DTIRP).
• Caitin Harrington, "Chemical Weapons [Destruction] Deadlines Extended," Arms Control Today, January/February 2007.
• The OPCW grants the U.S. and Russia additional time to fulfill their chemical weapons disposal obligations.
• Sergey Batsanov, "Approaching the 10th Anniversary of the Chemical Weapons Convention," The Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 13, July 2006 (No. 2), p. 339.
• An assessment of the status of the chemical weapons arms control regime, including the CWC and the OPCW, efforts to eliminate existing chemical weapons stocks, and an analysis of future challenges to the CWC.
• Lisa Tabassi, "Impact of the CWC: Progressive Development of Customary International Law and Evolution of the Customary Norm Against Chemical Weapons," CBW Conventions Bulletin, March 2004, p. 1.
• A detailed analysis of the influence of the CWC on both national and international legal codes barring chemical weapons.
• Alexander Kelle, "The CWC After Its First Review Conference: Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty?" Disarmament Diplomacy, No. 71, June-July 2003.
• An analysis of the 1^st CWC review conference held in The Hague, Netherlands.
• Jonathan B. Tucker, ed., The Conduct of Challenges Inspections Under the Chemical Weapons Convention, August 29, 2002. (Requires Acrobat Reader).
• Jonathan B. Tucker, ed., The Chemical Weapons Convention: Challenges and Solutions, April 24, 2001.

Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC)

• General Information
• The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC; also known simply as the Biological Weapons Convention, or BWC) (Requires Acrobat Reader) 

• Full text of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction (BTWC). According to Article 1 of the treaty, states are prohibited from pursuing the development, production, and/or stockpiling of biological agents and toxins "of types and quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective, or other peaceful purposes," and associated weaponry. As of June 2005, 155 nations have acceded to the treaty, and 16 additional nations have signed but not yet ratified it.
• The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention Website
• Website established after the 6^th BWC review conference and maintained by the University of Bradford. Provides information on the BTWC, the current roster of states parties, and related measures, such as confidence-building measures. Documentation from review conferences, meetings of experts, and the Ad Hoc group is available. Information is available in several languages.
• Bradford Project on Strengthening the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC)
• A web-based resource containing official documents related to the BTWC (including Ad Hoc Group reports and working papers, VEREX documents, and review conference documents), supplemented by academic reports and analysis.
• Jenni Rissanen, "The Biological Weapons Convention," Nuclear Threat Initiative website, March 2003.
• An issue brief describing the origins, provisions, and evolution of the BTWC and the biological weapons arms control regime.
• The Biological Weapons Convention at a Glance
• A BTWC fact sheet prepared by the Arms Control Association.
• BTWC Fact Sheet: 
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Arms Control, May 22, 2002.
  
• BTWC Analysis: Progress and Challenges
• Graham S. Pearson, "The Biological Weapons Convention Meeting of Experts, August 2007," CBW Conventions Bulletin, Issue No. 76, October 2007, p. 4. (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• A detailed report describing the proceedings of the Meeting of Experts, held August 2007 in Geneva.
• Masood Khan, "The 2006 BWC Review Conference: The President's Reflections," Disarmament Diplomacy, No. 84, Spring 2007.
• An insightful perspective on the 6^th BTWC review conference written by Ambassador Masood Khan of Pakistan, who served as the President of the conference.
• Oliver Meier, "States Strengthen Biological Weapons Convention," Arms Control Today, January/February 2007.
• An analysis of the results of the 6^th BTWC review conference, which concluded in December 2006.
• John Hart and Frida Kuhlau, "Chemical and Biological Weapon Developments and Arms Control," SIPRI Yearbook 2007, Chapter 13.
• A review of 2006 developments in the area of chemical and biological weapons and arms control. Provides an overview of developments at the 6^th BTWC review conference, held in 2006.
• "The 2006 Biological Weapons Convention Review Conference," Arms Control Today, November 2006. (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• A compendium of articles and interviews discussing the future of the BTWC, compiled by Arms Control Today in advance of the 6^th BTWC review conference.
• Alan Pearson, "Incapacitating Biochemical Weapons: Science, Technology and Policy for the 21st Century," The Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 13, July 2006 (No. 2), p. 151.
• An analysis of recent military investigations of "non-lethal" chemical weapons and their implications for the chemical and biological arms control regimes.
• U.S. Department of State, Adherence To and Compliance with Arms Control, Nonproliferation, Disarmament Agreements and Commitments, August 2005.
• A report issued by the Department of State's Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation, which examines states' level of compliance with international nonproliferation treaties, including the BTWC. The report specifically examines the BTWC compliance records of China, Cuba, North Korea, Russia, Libya, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.
• Kenneth D. Ward, "The BWC Protocol: Mandate for Failure," The Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 11, Summer 2004 (No. 2), p. 1. (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• An examination of the activities of the Ad Hoc Group and its negotiations of a draft BTWC verification protocol until July 2001. The positions, roles, and motivations of major players (U.S., EU, Russia, Non-Aligned Movement) are examined.
• Jonathan B. Tucker, "The BWC New Process: A Preliminary Assessment," The Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 11, Spring 2004 (No. 1), p. 26. (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• An overview of prior efforts to develop a BTWC verification protocol, and analysis of the aftermath of the 5^th BTWC review conference.
• The U.S. Position on the Biological Weapons Convention: Combating the BW Threat
• Speech delivered in Tokyo on August 26, 2002 by John R. Bolton, Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security. Bolton discussed why the U.S. decided to reject the BTWC verification protocol, which had been under negotiation for several years.
• Strengthening the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: Countering the Threat from Biological Weapons
• A report presented to the British Parliament by the Secretary of Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, April 2002. (Requires Acrobat Reader)
• The Biological Weapons Convention: Challenges and Opportunities
• Briefing by John R. Bolton, U.S. Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security, January 11, 2002, held jointly by the Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute and the Monterey Institute Center for Nonproliferation Studies.
• Statement by the United States to the Ad Hoc Group of Biological Weapons Convention States Parties
• Delivered by Ambassador Donald Mahley, U.S. Special Negotiator for Chemical and Biological Arms Control Issues, July 25, 2001.
• House of Cards: The Pivotal Importance of Technically Sound BWC Monitoring Protocol, The Stimson Center, May 2001
• Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, "A Critical Moment for the Control of Biological Weapons", Journal of the Federation of American Scientists, Vol. 53, No. 5, September/October 2000.
• Graham S. Pearson, "The Protocol to the Biological Weapons Convention is Within Reach," Arms Control Today, June 2000.
• "Prospects for Progress: Drafting the Protocol to the BWC" An Interview with Ambassador Tibor Toth, Chairman, Ad Hoc Group of the States Parties to the BWC, Arms Control Today, May 2000.
• Federation of American Scientists [FAS] Working Papers on Biological Weapons 

• A collection of reports and working papers prepared FAS dealing with various aspects of biological weapons.
• Livermore Workshop Proceedings (requires Acrobat Reader)
• The Utility of Sampling and Analysis for Compliance Monitoring of the Biological Weapons Convention, February 1997.
• Inspection Procedures for Compliance Monitoring of the Biological Weapons Convention, December 1997.
• Procedures for Investigating Suspicious Outbreaks of Infectious Disease in a Noncooperative Environment, September 1998.

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  Other Treaties
  

• 1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare
• Full text of the protocol.
• 1925 Geneva Protocol-Federation of American Scientists
• A brief history of the Geneva Protocol in the US.

ORGANIZATIONS

• Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
• Organization based in The Hague, charged with verifying state declarations and destruction of chemical weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention. The OPCW conducts inspections of states' declared chemical facilities, to ensure non-diversion to weapons purposes. The OPCW is also responsible for promoting cooperation between states in the peaceful use of chemistry, and providing assistance and protection to states in the event of a chemical attack or incident.
• Implementation Support Unit (ISU) of the BTWC, UN Office at Geneva
• A small unit established by participants at the Sixth Review Conference of the BTWC. The ISU provides administrative support and assistance to member states in matters of national implementation of the BTWC and manages the receipt and distribution of confidence-building measures (CBMs).
• Australia Group
• An informal organization comprised of exporter nations that seeks to limit the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons through the harmonization of national export control laws. The Australia Group formulates lists of chemical and biological agents and associated production equipment to be subjected to export controls.
• Ad Hoc Group of the States Parties to the Convention of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and their Destruction
• UNMOVIC - United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission
• Created as a successor to UNSCOM under UN Security Council Resolution 1284 in December 1999. UNMOVIC operated in Iraq until March 2003, with a mission to verify Iraq's compliance with its disarmament obligations. Its mandate was terminated 29 June 2007. The website provides UNMOVIC reports and other documentation.
• UNSCOM - United Nations Special Commission on Iraq
• Established April 1991 by UN Security Council Resolution 687 after the Persian Gulf War. UNSCOM conducted inspections in Iraq and supervised the disarmament and deactivation of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction programs and certain associated delivery systems.

EXPORT CONTROLS

• Australia Group
• An informal organization comprised of exporter nations that seeks to limit the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons through the harmonization of national export control laws. The Australia Group formulates lists of chemical and biological agents and associated production equipment to be subject to export controls.
• AG Participants
• An up-to-date list of nations participating in the AG.
• AG Objectives
• A brief explanation of the AG strategy.
• AG Common Control Lists
• Categorized export control lists developed by the AG.
• The Australia Group at a Glance, Arms Control Association
• UN Security Council Resolution 1540 (1540 committee website)
• Website dedicated to Resolution 1540, which requires states to create and enforce domestic legislation to prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The website posts states' submissions to the committee, including national legislation.
• US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS; formerly the Bureau of Export Administration)
• BIS website providing information on U.S. export regulations, licensing procedures, and export control lists.
• Export Control Organisation (ECO, UK), UK Department of Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform
• ECO oversees UK export controls and licensing of military exports.
• Export Control and Related Border Security Assistance (EXBS) program
• A website maintained by the EXBS program, a US government initiative intended to assist the development of other nations' export control systems. The website provides resources on national and international export control systems, and links to other export control-related content.
• SIPRI Nonproliferation and Export Control Project
• A website maintained by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, providing information concerning several aspects of national and international export control systems.
• Michael Beck, "Creating a New Multilateral Export Control Regime," Arms Control Today, April 2003.
• Hearing of the Senate Committee on Government Affairs, regarding Russia and China - Nonproliferation and Export Controls, June 6, 2002.
• Full text of the legislation, which requires the U.S. to impose sanctions against countries "that use chemical or biological weapons in violation of international law or...against their own nationals." Also calls for the imposition of sanctions against companies that contribute to the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons.

COUNTERPROLIFERATION

• Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)
• A multilateral initiative created by the U.S. and announced by President George W. Bush in May 2003. The PSI is designed to enable the interdiction of shipments of weapons of mass destruction, their components, and their delivery systems by promoting better cooperation between member states. The PSI began as a group of 11 nations, and other nations have pledged support of the initiative. According to the Congressional Research Service, as of December 2007, 86 nations have formally committed to PSI participation.
• Reports of the US Congressional Research Service (CRS) on PSI and U.S. WMD counterproliferation policy:
• Mary Beth Nikitin, CRS, "Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)," January 16, 2008.
• Sharon Squassoni, CRS, "Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)," September 14, 2006.
• Jeniifer K. Elsea, CRS, "Weapons of Mass Destruction Counterproliferation: Legal Issues for Ships and Aircraft," October 1, 2003.
• UN Security Council Resolution 1540 (1540 committee website)
• Website dedicated to Resolution 1540, which requires states to create and enforce domestic legislation to prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The website posts states' submissions to the committee, including national legislation.
• UNSCR 1540 Resource Collection
• Resource maintained by the Nuclear Threat Initiative; provides an overview and analysis of the resolution and its implementation.
• G8 Global Partnership against the Proliferation of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction
• A multilateral initiative announced at the 2002 Kananaskis (Canada) G8 Summit, in which the Group of Eight (G8) member nations committed $20 billion through 2012 to provide assistance to nations (mainly Russia) to destroy stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. Projects under the initiative have included the construction of facilities to dispose of Russian chemical weapons and the provision of funding for research projects involving weapons scientists formerly employed by the Soviet Union. In addition to the G8 member nations, as of 2007, 14 other partners had provided financial support to the Global Partnership.
• Global Partnership Review (June 2007)
• A brief review of the achievements, lessons learned, and future priorities of the Global Partnership.
• Report on the G8 Global Partnership (June 2007)
• An update on Global Partnership activities over the past year.
• CNS Global Partnership Resource Page
• Information and analysis pertaining to the Global Partnership provided by the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies.
• Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR)
• A collection of programs otherwise known as "Nunn-Lugar" programs, after US Senators Sam Nunn and Richard Lugar, who co-sponsored the Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991. Under CTR, the US provides funding and assistance to Russia and other former Soviet states, including Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, to secure WMD-related materials and dismantle nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and associated delivery systems. Since 1998, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) has overseen implementation of CTR.
• CTR Fact Sheet
• A fact sheet published by DTRA describing the main features of the program.
• "Cooperative Threat Reduction Annual Report to Congress, Fiscal Year 2008," US Department of Defense
• A report describing CTR activities, accomplishments, and budgetary data through December 31, 2006.
• Amy F. Woolf, Congressional Research Service, "Nonproliferation and Threat Reduction Assistance: US Programs in the Former Soviet Union," November 28, 2007.
• A detailed report describing CTR and related U.S. programs managed by the Departments of State and Energy.
• National Research Council, "The Biological Threat Reduction Program of the Department of Defense," National Academies Press, 2007.
• An evaluation of biological threat reduction programs implemented by DTRA, performed by the National Research Council at the behest of the US Congress.
• A webpage providing information and analysis concerning all aspects of CTR.
• Nonproliferation of WMD Expertise, U.S. Department of State
• A multilateral program initiated in 1992 and designed to prevent the proliferation of WMD technology and expertise following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The program funds research centers, such as the International Science and Technology Center in Moscow, and collaborative research projects in the former Soviet Union involving former nuclear, chemical and biological weapons scientists. Nonproliferation Disarmament Fund, U.S. Department of State
• A fund that enables the U.S. government to respond rapidly to nonproliferation and WMD disarmament situations that arise.
• 2004 GAO [US Government Accountability Office] Report on the NDF.
• U.S. Counterproliferation Program Review Committee, Report on Activities and Programs for Countering Proliferation and NBC [Nuclear, Biological, Chemical] Terrorism, Executive Summary, May 2007.
• U.S. Department of Defense, Chemical and Biological Defense Program, Annual Report to Congress, April 2007.
• Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, U.S. National Defense University
• Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, U.S. Air Force
• Nonproliferation and Global Nuclear Materials Management, Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
• The Proliferation Primer 
A Majority Report of the Subcommittee on International Security, Proliferation and Federal Services, U.S. Senate, January 1998.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Online Journals

• The Nonproliferation Review 
James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute of International Studies
• The CBW Conventions Bulletin 
Quarterly Journal of the Harvard Sussex Program on CBW Armament and Arms Limitation
• The Monitor 
Center for International Trade and Security, University of Georgia
• Arms Control Today 
Arms Control Association
• WMD Insights sponsored by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency
• The Bulletin Online Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists

Last updated: 1 February 2008

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