Russia has developed a broad range of launch vehicles and continues to
advance its launch vehicle technology in order to increase its share of the commercial
launch market. Russian rockets available for use include members
of the following rocket series: Kosmos, Molniya, Proton, Rokot, Soyuz,
Start, and Volna.[1,2] Rockets
planned for future use include the
Angara, Strela, and Mikron
launch vehicles.[3,4]
Powered by liquid oxygen/hydrogen fuel, the Angara rockets will be
produced in four versions from light- to heavy-class and will eventually be able
to carry a payload of 30 metric tons into orbit.[4]
A strong push for development of this class of rockets comes from the military,
which is interested in using them to reach geostationary orbit from Russian
territory.[5] The first launch is not expected until late 2007 at the
earliest.[6] Russia conducted the maiden launch of the Strela light-class
rocket, a converted RS-18 intercontinental ballistic missile, in December
2003.[7] Russia has also developed the Mikron booster rocket to launch small satellites from 50 to
150 kg.[8] The Mikron can be launched from a MiG-31 fighter jet,
which reduces launch costs to less than one-third of a conventional launch.[8]
Active Russian Space Launch Facilities.
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Current launches are conducted by the Russian Space Forces under the Ministry
of Defense at one of three launch facilities: the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan
(which Russia leases from Kazakhstan), the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in northwestern
Russia, and the Svobodnyy Cosmodrome in eastern Russia.[1,9] Russia wants ultimately to modernize both of its national launch sites—Plesetsk and Svobodnyy—to
increase its indigenous launch infrastructure to save money for the Russian
space program.[10] Russia has been working on upgrades at Plesetsk since 2001
and, in mid-October 2003, decided to give priority to its work there.[2]
Russian
Space Forces Commander Colonel-General Vladimir Popovkin in August of 2005
planned for all military launches to be conducted from Plesetsk by 2010.[11] A
completely assembled launch pad, which will be reassembled at Plesetsk for the Angara rockets, was presented
at its production site in Severodvinsk in
October 2005.[12] Further
work on the Svobodnyy site will not begin before
2010. In the interim, only light Strela and Start rockets will be launched
from Svobodnyy.[2] This site allows
rockets to be launched into solar-synchronous and polar orbits without crossing
over foreign states.[13] In June of 2005, Russian Defense Minister Sergei
Ivanov reiterated Russia's commitment to lease the Baikonur Cosmodrome through
2050 from Kazahkstan for 94 million euros per year.[14,15] The continuing use of Baikonur seems evident from future plans at Baikonur for
several purposes: manned space
launches; communication, navigation and television satellite launches into
geostationary orbit; and the development of the Baiterek launch complex.[15] Construction of the joint Russian-Kazakh Baiterek launch complex will
be based on the Angara rockets currently being developed.[16]
Russia's space systems command
center is located in Krasnosnamensk
(Moscow region).[17] Russia's space tracking system includes two networks, the
Measurement Complex (IP) and the Command-Measurement Complex (OKIK).[17] The OKIK
network comprises 11 operational stations within Russia, and the IP network
includes stations near launch sites and along the orbital path, as well as
mobile stations and scientific installations.[17]
Russia has entered into several international commercial launch partnerships. Russia continues to participate with the
United States in their joint venture, International Launch Services (ILS),
which accounts for one-half of the world market for space services.[18] Created in 1995, ILS provides commercial launch services using the U.S. Atlas
and Russian Proton launch vehicles.[19]
Russia and the European Space Agency (ESA)
have agreed to a
joint project in which Russia will
launch its Soyuz-2 launch vehicle from Kourou, French Guiana.[20,21] The
project is beneficial to both ESA and Russia, as it will allow ESA to
own a launch site capable of sending the entire range of light- to heavy- class rockets into space and
will speed Russian efforts to occupy a niche in the commercial space launch
market.[21] ESA member countries will provide financing to upgrade the
Kourou launch pad,
which is expected to cost 344 million euros.[22,23] Construction of the launch pad
had already begun as of April 2005, and the first launch of a Soyuz-2 is
expected in 2007.[23]
Eurorokot, a Russian-German joint venture with a 51% share held by EADS Space
Transportation, provides European access to Russia's advanced space technology
through its Rokot launch vehicles in return for assistance financing the
upgrade of Plesetsk cosmodrome.[24] Rokot launch vehicles have the
capability of reaching circular and eliptical orbits with a payload of two
tons.[25] The seventh launch of the Rokot vehicle in October 2005 ended
in a second-stage malfunction and a failure to orbit the European Cryosat satellite, resulting in the
suspension of future launches.[26] In a separate partnership concluded in August 2003, Russia and the German
company OHB System
signed a contract to launch foreign military spacecraft using Russian launch vehicles from
the Plesetsk Cosmodrome during 2005-07.[27,28]
In partnership with companies from the United States, Ukraine, Great Britain,
and Norway,
Russia's Energia has a 25% share in the International Sea Launch Consortium,
which conducts launches from a platform near Christmas Island in the Pacific
Ocean using Zenit-3SL rockets.[29,30] Russia also concluded an agreement in 2001
with Ukraine to jointly develop and promote internationally the commercial uses
of the Ukrainian-designed Zenit, Tsiklon, and Dnepr launch vehicles
and the Baikonur Cosmodrome.[31]
Russia is currently working on the development of the Clipper spacecraft,
which is envisioned to be a reuseable space vehicle that would fulfill a role
left open between that of the Soyuz and space shuttle manned missions.[16] The
European Space Agency has expressed interest in joint development of the
Clipper.[32] The craft is planned to have a launch capability of 500 kg
and a return with up to twice that amount. It will have the capability of
carrying a crew of at
least six into low-Earth orbit and back.[16,32]
[1] "Russian Federation Has 16 Types of SLVs Available for Launch in 2003,"
Kosmos, January 15, 2003; in S&T
Monitor 141003 Aerospace and Telecommunications Developments, October 14, 2003, FBIS
Document CEP20031014000373.
[2] Ivan Safronov, "Boris Aleshin Sets Priorities for Space Center Building,"
Kommersant, October 14, 2003, p. 2; in "Russia: Plesetsk Space Center
Upgrade To Be Given Priority Over Svobodnyy," FBIS Document
CEP20031014000257.
[3] "Russia planning rocket launch from new Far East cosmodrome in November," Itar-Tass, February 17, 2003, FBIS Document CEP20030217000036.
[4] "Update: The Development of the New 'Angara' SLV," Arms-Tass newstape,
June 30, 2003; in
"S&T Monitor 180803 Russia: Aerospace Developments," August 18, 2003, FBIS
Document CEP20030820000276.
[5] Dmitry Pieson, "Khrunichev,
defense ministry to build Angara jointly," Aerospace Daily & Defense Report,
May 26, 2005.
[6] "Angara Rocket To Be Launched No
Earlier Than Late 2007," Interfax, September 1, 2005, FBIS
Document CEP20050901950109.
[7] "First Launch of the Strela Launcher," Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces
website, December 5, 2003,
http://www.russianforces.org/eng/news/archives/000032.html.
[8] "Russia Develops Unique Airborne Launch Platform for Small Satellites,"
Kosmos, January 4, 2003; in
"S&T Monitor Russia: Aerospace and Telecommunications Developments 141003," October 14,
2003, FBIS
Document CEP20031014000373.
[9] Vasilina Vasilyeva, Interview with Roasaviakosmos General Director Yuriy
Koptev, "We Will Never Abandon Baykonur. Rosaviakosmos Chief Believes That
None of the Existing Space Launch Centers Is Capable of Replacing the Legendary
Cosmodrome," January 27, 2003, p. 9; in "Russian Space Agency Chief on Value of Baykonur, Future of Other Cosmodromes", FBIS Document CEP20030128000404.
[10] Yuri Karash, "Plesetsk May Become Russia's Main Spaceport," Space.com
website,
February 23, 2000,
http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/business/plesetsk_russia_000222.html.
[11] Interfax-AVN, August 22, 2005; in BBC Monitoring International Reports, August
22, 2005; in "Plesetsk to become main launch ground for Russian military--Space
Troops chief," Lexis-Nexis Academic,
http://web.lexis-nexis.com.
[12] Moscow Channel One
TV, October 10, 2005; in "Russian TV Shows New Launch Pad
for
Plesetsk
Cosmodrome
in Severodvinsk,"
FBIS Document CEP20051010002001.
[13] "Svobodnyy Space Center Future
Launch Site for Russian Space Forces," Agentstvo Voyennykh Novostey,
August 15, 2005, FBIS Document CEP20050815027082.
[14] Bagila Bukharbayeva, "From
Sputnik to the space station--world's largest space launch site marks 50 years," Associated Press, June 2, 2005.
[15] "Russia will continue to use Baikonur--Ivanov," Itar-Tass, June 2, 2005.
[16] "Press Conference With Federal
Space Agency Director Anatoly Perminov," Ria Novosti, April 6, 2005.
[17] Pavel Podvig, "Russian Military Space Program,"
Center for Arms Control
Studies, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, October 2003.
[18] "Russia-US Venture Owns Half World Market of Space Services," Itar-Tass,
January 8, 2004, FBIS Document CEP20040108000168.
[19] "Russia: Intl Launch Services concludes space launch contract with
Intelsat," Agentstvo Voyennykh Novostey, January 16, 2002, FBIS Document
CEP20020116000118.
[20] Alexei Sokolov, "Russia To Use Modified Soyuz-2 Rocket for Space Launches
from French Guiana," Itar-Tass, June 3, 2003, FBIS Document CEP20030603000340.
[21] Christophe Jakubyszyn, "Mr. Raffarin Wants to Strengthen the Link Between
Diplomacy and Trade," Le Monde, October 8, 2003; in "French PM Raffarin
Works to Boost French-Russian Ties," FBIS Document EUP20031008000020.
[22] "Russia, France Discuss Launches from Guyana Base," Interfax, August 22,
2003, FBIS Document CEP20030822000214.
[23] Vera Scherbakova,
"France signs programme of Russia rocket launches from Kourou," Itar-Tass,
March 21, 2005.
[24] "Russian German Joint Venture To
Launch 2 Satellites This Year," Itar-Tass, March 22, 2005, FBIS
Document CEP 20050322000103.
[25] "Russia: Rokot Carrier Rocket Launch Preparations at Plesetsk Enter Final Stage,"
Agenstvo Voyennykh Novostey, August 24, 2005, FBIS Document
CEP20050824027100.
[26] "Russian
Rocket Fails To Put European Research Satellite Into Orbit," Interfax,
October 8, 2005, FBIS Document
CEP20051008027066.
[27] "Russian rockets to launch foreign military satellites," Pravda
online version, August 21, 2003,
http://english.pravda.ru/main/2003/08/21/49446_.html.
[28] Andrey Savon, "Forces of the Future," Rodnaya Gazeta, October 3,
2003; in "Russia: Space Forces Mark Holiday With New Success," FBIS
Document CEP20031002000393.
[29] Vladimir Rogachev, "Ukrainian-Russian Zenit Rocket Launched From
International Sea Launch Pad," Itar-Tass, October 1, 2003, FBIS Document
CEP20031001000008.
[30] "Sea Launch Consortium To Launch Telecommunications Satellite,"
Interfax,
November 5, 2003.
[31] "Russia, Ukraine to expand cooperation in aerospace field," Interfax,
February 12, 2001, FBIS Document CEP20010212000161.
[32] Dmitry Pieson, "ESA Officials
Support Energia's Clipper program," Aerospace Daily & Defense Report,
June 14, 2005.{Updated 11/09/2005}
